Table 2 Mechanism and application of nanoregulators inhibiting the formation and growth of ice crystals

Graphene oxide

500 nm

1.0 mg/mL

Culture medium

Horse sperm

Significantly improve the motility of horse sperm (from 24.3 to 71.3%)

The shape of the honeycomb hexagonal bracket matches the arrangement of the oxidation groups on the GO substrate with the ice crystal, thus forming a hydrogen bond with the ice crystal, resulting in the bending of the ice crystal surface and inhibiting the growth and recrystallization of the ice crystal

[142, 143]

Graphene oxide

Not mentioned

1.5 mg/mL

VS consisting of 15% Me₂SO, 15% ethylene glycol (EG), and 0.5 M sucrose

Mouse blastocyst

The re-expansion rate, hatching rate and implantation rate of vitrified frozen embryos were increased, and a series of cellular and molecular stress could be prevented

As mentioned above

[144]

MOF-801 NPs

10 nm

50 μg/mL

Ice-binding proteins

Erythrocyte

Increase red blood cell recovery rate

The formation of ice crystals is reduced by modifying organic connectors and controlling the micro-curvature of the ice surface to provide periodic and orderly ice-binding sites

[145, 146]

Genipin crosslinked Pluronic F127-chitosan NPs

47.7 ± 2.1 nm

0.1–10 mg/mL

Trehalose

Human adipose stem cells

Reduce the injury of adipose stem cells and improve the survival rate

Promote the entry of non-toxic extracellular ice-inhibiting substances into cells and reduce the use of intracellular toxic cryoprotectants

[147]

Hydroxyapatite (HA) NPs

60 nm

0.01%, 0.02%, 0.05%, 0.1% (w/w)

15% (v/v)

Me₂SO, 15% (v/v) EG and 0.5 M sucrose

Porcine oocyte

Improve the survival rate of oocytes

Increase the viscosity of the solution to delay devitrification

[148]

Apatite nanoparticles

22-80 nm

2.25 mg/mL

Trehalose

Erythrocyte

Improve the frozen survival rate of red blood cells

Promote trehalose to permeate into the cell without pore, and significantly improve the anti-freezing ability of the cell

[149]