Fig. 1

Obstacles in the development of RNA therapeutics: A chemical modifications including alterations at the 5′ and 3′ ends (5′-capping, 3′-tail modifications, and 5′ and 3′-end conjugations), nucleotide modifications, ribose sugar substitutions at the 2′ position, and alterations in the phosphate backbone. B Nanocarrier delivery systems including lipid nanoparticle (LNP), lipoplex, polyplex, lipopolyplex, polymersome, polymeric micelle, exosome, and DNA nanostructures