Fig. 3

Protective and reparative effects of UDCA-NVs-TPP on SH-SY5Y against mitochondrial damage induced by MPP⁺. a) Schematic representation of different treatment groups. b) Overall antioxidative capacity of UDCA-NVs-TPP accompanied by images of the solutions (n = 3). c) Measurement of ATP levels in SH-SY5Y cells pretreated with UDCA-NVs-TPP and subsequently exposed to MPP⁺ (n = 3). d) Representative morphological images of SH-SY5Y cells: cells exposed to MPP⁺, cells pretreated with UDCA-NVs-TPP and then exposed to MPP⁺, captured using an inverted microscope. e) CLSM images demonstrate that SH-SY5Y cell mitochondria pretreated with UDCA-NVs-TPP are intact and highly active. Blue: cell nuclei; green: total mitochondria; red: active mitochondria. f) Quantitative assessment of active mitochondria (n = 3). g) CLSM images demonstrate the levels of mitochondrial ROS produced by SH-SY5Y cells after pretreatment with UDCA, UDCA-NVs, UDCA-NVs-TPP, followed by co-incubation with MPP⁺ for 24 h. Red: mitochondrial ROS. h) Quantitative analysis of mitochondrial ROS levels (n = 3)