Table 4 Key comparison of NIR-II activated antibacterial NMs with conventional antibacterial therapies

Mechanism of Action

Photothermal & Photodynamic effects

Antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides, disinfectants

Target Specificity

Highly targeted with minimal collateral damage

Broad-spectrum, potential off-target effects

Resistance Development

Lower likelihood of bacterial resistance

High due to overuse and misuse of antibiotics

Tissue Penetration

Deep penetration due to NIR-II properties

Limited, especially in deep-seated infections

Immune System Modulation

Can enhance immune response via antigen presentation

Some antibiotics may suppress immune function

Microbiome Impact

Less disruption of commensal bacteria with targeted application

Often disrupts gut and skin microbiome, leading to dysbiosis

Scalability and Cost

High cost and scalability challenges

Established production with varying costs

Side Effects

Potential localized heating or oxidative stress

Allergic reactions, gut microbiome imbalance, organ toxicity

Multi-functionality

Can integrate therapy, imaging, and diagnostics

Primarily treatment-focused