Table 3 The utility of exosomes in brain tumor treatment

Brain endothelial bAND.3 cells

Vascular endothelial growth factor small interfering RNA

Neuronal glioblastoma, astrocytoma U-87, malignant glioma cells

Vascular endothelial growth factor RNA and protein level were inhibited by siRNA encapsulated in exosomes

[56]

Brain neuronal glioblastoma-astrocytoma U-87 MG cells, brain endothelial bAND.3 cells, neuroectodermal tumor PF SK-1 cells, and glioblastoma A-172 cells

Rhodamine 123, Paclitaxel, doxorubicin

Neuronal glioblastoma-astrocytoma U-87, malignant glioma cells

The effectiveness of this treatment technique is due to a higher level of CD63 expression.

[150]

HEK293T cells

miRNA-21

Brain tumor

Tumor growth inhibition; can pass across the BBB

[151]

Mouse fibroblast cell line L929

Methotrexate functionalized with therapeutic [Lys-Leu-Ala (KLA)] and targeted [low-density lipoprotein (LDL)] peptides

Human primary glioma cell line U87

LDL/KLA-LDL modification enhanced EV uptake, BBB permeation, and glioma targeting, leading to improved treatment outcomes and increased median survival in mice

[152]

Bone marrow stromal cells

miRNA-146b

Glioma

Intratumoral exosome injection into glioma rat xenograft reduced tumor volume considerably.

[153]

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Anti-miR-9

Glioblastoma multiforme

MiR-9 reversal sensitized glioblastoma cells to Temozolomide, increasing cellular death and caspase activation.

[154]

HEK293T cells

Cytosine deaminase-uracil phosphoribosyl transferase (CD-UPRT) fusion protein

Schwannoma

Treatment of Schwannoma

[155]

Blood-Derived Exosomes

Cytosolic Phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) siRNA, Metformin

Glioblastoma multiforme

ncreased cellular uptake, strong antitumor effects, inhibition of tumor growth, and extended survival in mice

[156]

CpG-Loaded Exosomes (CpG-EXO/TGM)

CpG oligonucleotides, Temozolomide

Glioblastoma multiforme

Significantly extended median survival in glioma mouse models; synergistic effect with TMZ, preventing postoperative recurrence

[77]

Dendritic cell-derived exosomes (DEX)

Alpha-Galactosylceramide, Tumor-Derived Exosomes, iNKT cells

Glioma cells

Promoted immune response against glioma in mouse models, breaking immune tolerance

[157]

Neutrophil-derived exosomes (NEs-Exos)

Doxorubicin (DOX)

Glioma cells

Efficient BBB penetration, tumor targeting, and suppression of glioma growth

[158]

Neural stem cell-derived exosomes (NSCEXOs)

miR-124-3p

Glioma cells

Therapeutic effects on a mouse tumor xenograft model of glioma. Suppression of glioma growth via the EXOmiR-124-3p/FLOT2/AKT1 pathway

[159]

Neural stem cells (NSCs)

CpG-STAT3 antisense oligonucleotide (CpG-STAT3ASO)

Glioma microenvironment

NSCs secreted exosomes loaded with CpG-STAT3ASO, which enhanced immune activation, induced NF-κB signaling and IL-12 production, improved oligonucleotide transfer, and resulted in enhanced antitumor effects in GL261 glioma models

[160]